The vast and beautiful continent of Australia is home to numerous species of flora and fauna that are found nowhere else in the world. However, the ecological balance of the continent has been severely impacted by the presence of feral camels. These large, majestic animals were initially brought to Australia as working animals in the 19th century but were later released into the wild when they were no longer needed. Now, the number of feral camels in Australia has risen to approximately 1.2 million, causing significant damage to the delicate ecosystem. In this article, we will explore the various ecological impacts of feral camels on Australian flora and fauna, the cultural and social significance of these animals to Aboriginal communities, and review the ongoing efforts to manage and control their population.
Contents
What are Feral Camels?
Feral camels are those that have gone wild and are living in the wild, outside of captivity. These camels are descendants from camels that were brought to Australia during the 19th century from India, Afghanistan, and the Middle East. During that time period, they were imported to be used as transportation for exploring and building infrastructure in the outback. However, when the need for camels decreased, many were released into the wild where they have since then been reproducing and thriving. According to recent estimates, there are now over one million feral camels living in Australia.
Feral camels are different from their domestic counterparts in their behavior and physical characteristics. They are known to travel greater distances for food and water, and can go without water for several days. They also have a stronger sense of smell, eyesight, and hearing than most other animals in the outback, which helps them survive. Feral camels are larger in size than their domestic counterparts, which puts them at an advantage when it comes to competing for resources.
While feral camels are considered an invasive species in Australia, it is important to note that they are not unique to Australia. They can also be found in other parts of the world, such as the United States, North Africa, and the Middle East. However, the situation in Australia is unique due to the high population density of feral camels in such a geographically isolated area.
In the next section, we will explore the origin and spread of feral camels in Australia in more detail. To learn more about current feral camel control programs in Australia, visit Feral Camel Control Australia.
Origin and Spread of Feral Camels in Australia
Feral camels are not native to Australia and they were introduced by humans in the 19th century. The first recorded import was in 1840, when the animals were brought from India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan to assist European explorers and settlers with transportation and work in the harsh Australian outback. Over the next few decades, more camels were brought in for transportation of goods, construction, and mining. When motorized transportation became available, many of the camels were released into the wild as they were no longer needed.
The population of feral camels grew rapidly, and by the early 1900s, there were an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 camels spread across the continent. In modern times, the feral camel population in Australia is estimated to be around 1.2 million, making it the largest population of feral camels anywhere in the world.
The spread of feral camels in Australia is mainly concentrated in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country, where the climate is harsh and unforgiving. These regions cover over 40% of Australia’s landmass, and as such, have provided a favourable habitat for the camels to thrive. The camels can survive in the desert with very little water for several weeks and can go without food for several days.
The spread of these animals has been facilitated by the lack of natural predators, which allows them to breed freely and expand their range. Additionally, the vast and remote nature of the areas where they live has made it difficult for humans to control their spread.
Feral camels have had a significant impact on the Australian environment, and their presence has raised concerns about the conservation of native flora and fauna. The management of feral camels in Australia is both a conservation and animal welfare issue, and various strategies have been employed to control their numbers and minimize their impact on the environment.
Impact on Australian Flora
Feral camels have a significant impact on Australian flora, contributing to the destruction of native vegetation and the spread of weeds. The destruction of native vegetation occurs due to the camels’ overgrazing, particularly in areas where they congregate around water sources. As they trample and consume vegetation, the ecological balance of the area is disrupted, leading to a decline in biodiversity and habitat degradation.
The dispersal of seeds and weeds is another way feral camels impact Australian flora. Camels consume a variety of plants, including invasive species that are harmful to native flora. When they defecate, the seeds of these plants are spread through the ecosystem. This can cause the invasive species to spread rapidly, outcompeting native plants and completely altering the ecological makeup of the area.
The impact of feral camels on Australian flora is particularly significant given the unique and diverse range of endemic plant species in Australia. The introduction of non-native organisms is a significant threat to the country’s ecological balance, and feral camels are among the most destructive in this regard.
It’s worth noting that while feral camels are considered a problem in Australia, they are considered a valuable resource in other parts of the world. Countries like India and Saudi Arabia have long recognized the important role camels play in their cultures and have implemented successful strategies for the sustainable use and management of feral camel populations. However, given the unique biodiversity of Australia, such strategies may not be appropriate in the Australian context.
It’s clear that feral camels have a significant impact on Australian flora. To mitigate these effects, ongoing management programs are required, such as culling and control programs, harvesting and commercial use, and research and monitoring efforts. By adopting a multifaceted approach and working collaboratively across multiple sectors, it will be possible to better protect Australia’s unique flora from the impact of feral camels.
For more information on the impact of feral camels in Australia, see our article “Feral Camels in Australia.”
Destruction of Native Vegetation
The detrimental impact of feral camels on native vegetation in Australia is a significant concern for conservationists and ecologists. Feral camels have been known to cause widespread damage to vegetation through overgrazing, trampling, and browsing.
Overgrazing is a particular concern, as feral camels can consume up to 90 kilograms of vegetation per day, and are capable of stripping entire areas of vegetation, leaving the land barren and unable to support other forms of wildlife. This can cause irreversible damage to ecosystems, and may result in the loss of biodiversity.
Feral camels can cause physical damage to vegetation through trampling. They have a heavy gait and are able to cover large distances, which means that they can easily damage sensitive areas such as wetlands, salt flats, and other habitats that are important for native species.
Feral camels are also known to browse on leaves and stems, which can stunt the growth of plants and prevent them from reaching maturity. This can have long-term effects on the makeup of ecosystems, with some species being unable to recover from the damage caused by feral camels.
The damage caused by feral camels to native vegetation can have a range of knock-on effects, such as soil erosion and changes to water flow patterns. This can create further changes to ecosystems, and may make it more difficult for other species to survive.
It is essential to address the destruction of native vegetation caused by feral camels in Australia, as the impacts are severe and far-reaching. To understand more about the wider issues surrounding feral camels, including their impact on Australian agriculture, the challenges they face in surviving in the desert, and their significance to Indigenous communities, it is vital that effective management strategies are implemented.
Dispersal of Seeds and Weeds
Feral camels in Australia not only cause physical damage to the vegetation they consume, but also carry and disperse seeds and weeds to other areas. These weeds then compete with native plants and can become invasive species, causing further damage to the already fragile Australian ecosystem.
Studies have shown that feral camels have the ability to disperse the seeds of at least 80 species of plants, including the seeds of highly invasive species such as buffel grass and prickly acacia. These seeds can be transported over long distances, allowing weeds to spread to new areas that might not have been otherwise affected.
Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), for example, is a highly invasive weed that has caused significant damage to the environment and agriculture in Australia. It was introduced as a pasture species, but has since spread rapidly due to its high seed production and ability to outcompete native plants. Feral camels have been found to disperse buffel grass seeds over long distances, contributing to its spread.
In addition to the dispersal of seeds, feral camels also contribute to soil disturbance through their feeding and trampling behavior. This can create new areas for weed establishment and cause further damage to the ecosystem.
The impact of feral camels on the dispersal of seeds and weeds is a significant ecological issue in Australia. As mentioned, this can lead to the spread of highly invasive species, causing further damage to the already fragile ecosystem. It’s essential that management strategies not only focus on reducing the population of feral camels, but also address the spread of weeds and invasive species.
To learn more about the impact of feral camels on Australian agriculture, read our previous article on feral camels and their impact on Australian agriculture.
Impact on Australian Fauna
The presence of feral camels in Australia has had significant impacts on the country’s fauna. The introduction of camels has led to an increase in competition for resources, predation, disturbance, and disease transmission among native animal populations.
One of the most significant impacts of feral camels on Australian fauna is the competition for resources. Feral camels require large amounts of water and vegetation to survive, which puts pressure on other native animals trying to access these resources. This competition can lead to a decrease in the availability of resources and can cause native species to struggle to survive.
In addition to competition for resources, feral camels have been known to predate on native animals. Camels can prey on small mammals, reptiles, and birds, leading to a decrease in populations of these animals. Feral camels can also cause disturbance to native animals, such as bird nests, which can lead to a decrease in reproductive success.
Feral camels are also known to carry and transmit diseases to native animals. Some of the diseases that feral camels can carry include brucellosis, tuberculosis, and Q fever, which can have serious health impacts on native animal populations. This transmission of disease can have a significant impact on the health and viability of native animal populations, leading to a decrease in populations over time.
The presence of feral camels in Australia has had a significant impact on the country’s fauna. The competition for resources, predation, disturbance, and disease transmission caused by feral camels can lead to a decrease in population size and a decline in the health of native animal populations. It is important for effective management strategies to be implemented in order to mitigate these impacts and protect Australia’s unique fauna.
Competition for Resources
Feral camels compete with native wildlife for resources such as food, water, and shelter. As they are a large and mobile species, they can cover vast distances and consume large quantities of vegetation. This puts pressure on the already limited resources of the Australian outback, where water and food sources are often scarce.
Their ability to survive in harsh environments and their sheer size means that they can outcompete native wildlife for resources such as grasses, shrubs, and trees. This can have a cascading effect on the food web, impacting other species that rely on these resources for survival.
Feral camels also have a negative impact on the grazing lands used by Australia’s pastoral industry. As they feed on the same vegetation as the livestock, they directly compete with them for food. This reduces the carrying capacity of the land, which in turn reduces the income of the pastoral industry.
Camels are known to damage water infrastructure such as bores and tanks. This can impact the availability of water for both wildlife and livestock, exacerbating competition for this essential resource.
In addition to competition for resources, feral camels can also impact the ecosystem through their digestive process. Camel excrement can increase the nutrient levels in soil, leading to changes in vegetation composition and nutrient cycling. While this may seem beneficial, it can also lead to the spread of weeds and invasive plants, further impacting native flora and fauna.
The competition for resources between feral camels and native wildlife, as well as the pastoral industry, is one of the key impacts of feral camels on the Australian ecosystem. It is important that management strategies are put in place to address this issue and reduce the negative impacts of feral camels.
Predation, Disturbance, and Disease Transmission
Feral camels have had a significant impact on the Australian fauna through their predation, disturbance, and disease transmission. The presence of feral camels can lead to competition for resources, and this can be detrimental to native fauna. Camels can significantly impact the habitats of native species through their foraging, trampling, and browsing activities.
One of the ways that feral camels impact Australian fauna is through their predation. Camels have been known to prey on small native animals, such as lizards and rodents. This can have a significant effect on the local ecosystem, as the loss of these species can result in a decrease in biodiversity.
In addition to predation, feral camels also cause disturbance to the ecosystem. The animals can cause damage to the soil and vegetation through their trampling, which can alter the local habitat and lead to habitat degradation. This can have a detrimental effect on native fauna by altering their natural habitats and exposing them to new predators or competitors.
Feral camels can also act as a vector for the transmission of diseases to native fauna. Camels have been known to carry diseases such as brucellosis, which can have devastating effects on local populations of native animals. Once introduced to an ecosystem, these diseases can be difficult to eradicate and can have long-lasting effects on the health of the local fauna.
The impact of feral camels on Australian fauna through predation, disturbance, and disease transmission is significant. Addressing the issue of feral camel populations through dedicated culling and control programs may help mitigate these effects and protect the native fauna of Australia.
Impact on Aboriginal Communities
The impact of feral camels on Aboriginal communities in Australia cannot be overlooked. These animals hold cultural significance for many indigenous peoples and their presence has disrupted traditional ways of life.
Cultural and Social Significance of Camels
For many Aboriginal communities, camels hold cultural and spiritual significance. They were introduced to the continent during the colonial era and quickly became important pack animals for transportation and trade. Over time, the camel became intertwined with the daily lives and cultural practices of various Aboriginal communities.
In some communities, camels are seen as sacred animals that hold important spiritual and ceremonial value. For others, they are a valuable source of food and materials such as meat, hides, and bones. These uses have been disrupted by the proliferation of feral camel populations.
Conflicts with Land Use and Livelihoods
The presence of feral camels has had a significant impact on Aboriginal land management practices. They consume large amounts of vegetation, which can lead to desertification and a loss of habitat for other species. This makes it harder for Aboriginal communities to maintain traditional land use practices such as hunting, gathering, and cultural burning.
In some cases, feral camels also compete with livestock for resources, making it harder for Aboriginal communities to make a living through pastoralism. They also pose a danger to infrastructure such as fences, buildings, and water sources, which can be expensive to repair.
Current and Future Management Strategies
Aboriginal communities are often involved in the management and control of feral camels. One approach is through culling and control programs, which aim to reduce the population of feral camels in targeted areas. Another approach is through harvesting and commercial use, which can provide economic benefits to communities while also reducing populations.
Research and monitoring efforts also play a key role in managing feral camels. This includes tracking their movements and population numbers, assessing the impact on native flora and fauna, and identifying effective control methods.
Conclusion
The impact of feral camels on Aboriginal communities in Australia is complex and multifaceted. While they hold cultural significance, their presence has disrupted traditional land use practices and can pose a threat to livelihoods. The development of effective management strategies that take into account both the ecological and cultural impact of feral camels is essential for mitigating their negative effects.
The camel has a long-standing cultural and social significance for the Aboriginal communities in Australia. For many Indigenous groups, the camel is considered a valuable animal that can provide transportation, milk, and meat. The animal has been an important part of the Aboriginal culture and has played a significant role in traditional practices such as ceremony and hunting.
Camels were first introduced to Australia in the mid-19th century, primarily for transportation and work purposes. They were used to transport goods and equipment across the vast desert areas of the country. However, as time passed, many camels were released into the wild, and their population grew exponentially. Unfortunately, rather than being seen as valuable resources, they became viewed as harmful pests, destroying native flora and fauna.
Despite this, the camel remains an important cultural and social icon for many Aboriginal communities. For some, they are a symbol of survival and resilience in an environment as harsh as the Australian desert. They have been instrumental in allowing the Aboriginal people to live and thrive in this region.
Additionally, the camel has also become a significant part of Australian folklore and tourist culture. The famous “camel trains” of the outback have become an iconic image of Australia, with many tourists seeking out the experience of riding a camel through the desert.
Despite the ongoing conflicts between the camel and the Australian environment, many Aboriginal and non-Indigenous people are working to develop a sustainable approach to manage the camel population. This approach recognizes the cultural and social significance of the animal and seeks to balance traditional practices with environmental protection.
The cultural and social significance of camels in Australia cannot be overstated, particularly for the Aboriginal peoples of the country. As such, it is important that their presence is recognized and protected, while also acknowledging the need to manage their impact on the environment.
Conflicts with Land Use and Livelihoods
The presence of feral camels in Australia not only poses a threat to the environment and wildlife, but also causes conflicts with land use and livelihoods. As the population of feral camels grows, they increasingly compete with livestock for access to resources such as water and vegetation. This competition can lead to reduced grazing opportunities for livestock farmers and higher costs for managing resources.
Additionally, feral camels are known to cause damage to fences, water infrastructure, and other property, further exacerbating conflicts with land use. The damage caused by feral camels can be financially costly for landowners, and may also result in increased labor demands and time spent repairing and maintaining infrastructure.
Indigenous people in remote areas of Australia also face challenges related to feral camels. Many Indigenous communities have traditionally relied on hunting or using camels as a mode of transportation, but the presence of feral camels poses a threat to these cultural practices. The competition for resources and potential conflicts with livestock also impact the livelihoods of these communities.
Efforts to reduce the number of feral camels in Australia must take into consideration the impact on these communities and work to find solutions that minimize harm. Collaboration with Indigenous leaders and organizations can help to identify approaches that respect cultural values and address the challenges imposed by feral camel populations.
In order to effectively address conflicts with land use and livelihoods, it is essential that management strategies consider the needs and perspectives of all stakeholders, including farmers, landowners, Indigenous communities, and conservationists. By working together to find solutions, we can begin to mitigate the negative impact of feral camels on the Australian landscape and its people.
Current and Future Management Strategies
With the feral camel population in Australia estimated to be around 1.2 million, current and future management strategies are crucial for mitigating their ecological impact. There are several methods that have been employed and continue to be developed for controlling the spread of feral camels.
Culling and Control Programs
One of the most common methods for reducing camel populations is through culling programs, which involves the controlled shooting of camels. The effectiveness of this method depends on factors such as the size of the population, terrain, and accessibility. However, the use of helicopters and skilled marksmen have made it possible to cull large populations in remote areas. In addition to culling, efforts to control populations through mustering, fencing, and the use of fertility control have also been employed.
Harvesting and Commercial Use
Harvesting and commercial use of feral camels has also been explored as a method for reducing populations while also providing economic benefits. The camel meat industry has seen a rise in demand, particularly in the Middle East, where it is considered a delicacy. Additionally, camel milk and hides can also be used for commercial purposes. However, challenges such as logistical issues, cultural perceptions, and government regulations have hindered the growth of this industry.
Research and Monitoring Efforts
Research and monitoring efforts are critical for understanding the ecological impact of feral camels and developing effective management strategies. Several organizations and research projects are currently underway, including the Camel Action Plan, which aims to support the development of sustainable and effective management strategies. Remote sensing and GIS technology have also been utilized to track camel movements and their impact on the landscape.
Despite these efforts, the management of feral camels remains a complex issue. The effectiveness of strategies depends on various factors such as funding, community engagement, and cultural considerations. Collaboration between researchers, government agencies, and local communities is crucial for developing sustainable and effective management plans for feral camels in Australia.
Culling and Control Programs
Australia has implemented several culling and control programs to address the growing issue of feral camels. These programs aim to reduce the number of wild camels in sensitive areas and prevent them from invading new habitats. One of the primary techniques for managing the feral camel population is through culling.
Culling involves removing a specific number of camels from a population to reduce their impact on the ecosystem. This technique is often used in areas where feral camel populations have exceeded their carrying capacity and are causing significant damage to local vegetation and wildlife. Helicopter shooting and ground shooting are the two most common culling methods used in Australia. Helicopter shooting involves shooters using high-powered rifles from a helicopter to hunt down the camels, while ground shooting involves hunters tracking and shooting the camels on foot.
In addition to culling, other control measures include fencing, yarding, and mustering. Fencing is typically used to keep camels out of sensitive areas such as farmland, waterways, and urban areas. Yarding is another technique used to capture and relocate camels to areas where they can be managed more effectively. Mustering involves using trained animals or helicopters to herd camels into designated areas where they can be managed or monitored.
Despite the success of these control programs, there are several challenges associated with managing feral camels. The sheer size of the camel population and their ability to rapidly reproduce make it difficult to control their numbers effectively. The remote and often inaccessible areas where camels roam require significant resources and expertise to manage effectively.
To overcome these challenges, continued research and monitoring efforts are needed to gain a better understanding of feral camel behavior, population dynamics, and the ecological impact of their presence. Such research can help inform improved management strategies and assist in the development of new control technologies to better manage feral camel populations.
Harvesting and Commercial Use
One proposed solution to the issue of feral camels in Australia is the idea of harvesting and commercial use. This involves capturing and selling the camels for meat, hides, and other products.
The meat from camel has been consumed by humans for centuries in countries such as the Middle East and North Africa, where the animal is considered a delicacy. In Australia, camel meat has become increasingly popular in recent years, with restaurants offering dishes such as camel burgers and camel sausages. Camel milk and cheese products have also been introduced to the market.
In addition to providing a food source, the hides of feral camels can be used for leather products such as shoes, belts, and bags. The bones and tendons can also be utilized for various purposes, including making musical instruments such as the oud and the rebab.
Commercial use of feral camels can also provide economic benefits to the remote communities where the animals are found. Aboriginal communities in particular have been involved in the development of commercial camel enterprises, creating jobs and income opportunities in areas where unemployment rates are high.
However, there are concerns about the sustainability of harvesting and commercial use as a management strategy. Firstly, the sheer number of feral camels in Australia makes it unlikely that they can be completely eradicated through harvesting alone. Additionally, there are animal welfare considerations to be taken into account in the capture and transportation of large numbers of camels.
There is no guarantee that harvesting and commercial use will be economically viable in the long term. The market for camel products is still relatively small, with some consumers still hesitant to try the meat. Marketing and education efforts may be necessary to increase demand and ensure that the industry is sustainable.
Despite these challenges, harvesting and commercial use remains a potential solution to the issue of feral camels in Australia. It can provide economic benefits and reduce the environmental impact of the animals, while also meeting the demand for unique and sustainable products.
Research and Monitoring Efforts
In order to effectively manage feral camel populations and their impact on Australian flora and fauna, research and monitoring efforts are crucial. These efforts are aimed at understanding the behavior and population dynamics of feral camels, as well as identifying the most effective management strategies for their control.
Research:
Research into feral camels in Australia is ongoing, with efforts aimed at identifying the most effective management strategies for their control. Studies have examined the social structure and ecology of feral camel populations, as well as their interactions with native fauna and flora. One study found that feral camels compete with native herbivores such as kangaroos and wallabies for food resources. This competition can have a negative impact on native fauna populations by reducing their food availability.
Another study focused on the genetic diversity of feral camel populations in Australia. The study found that feral camel populations in Australia are relatively homogeneous, suggesting that they are all descendants from a small introduction event. This knowledge of genetic variation can help inform management strategies by identifying potential genetic vulnerabilities that could be targeted in control programs.
Monitoring:
Monitoring feral camel populations is essential for effective management. Various methods are used for monitoring feral camels, including aerial surveys and on-the-ground tracking. Aerial surveys involve flying over the areas where feral camels are known to inhabit and counting the numbers spotted. On-the-ground tracking involves following feral camel herds, determining the size and location of populations, and identifying areas where the impact is the greatest.
Monitoring helps to provide data for management decisions, tracking changes in population size, and identifying any locations where feral camels may be causing significant damage to the environment or posing risks to humans. Regular monitoring is essential for assessing the effectiveness of management strategies, identifying new feral camel populations, and ensuring that populations are being managed in a sustainable manner.
Overall:
Research and monitoring efforts are crucial for understanding the impact of feral camels on Australian flora and fauna, as well as identifying effective management strategies. Continued research can help shed light on feral camel behavior and population dynamics, which can then inform control programs. Ongoing monitoring is also essential for tracking changes in population size, identifying areas of impact, and assessing the effectiveness of management strategies. These efforts must continue in order to ensure that feral camel populations are managed in a sustainable and effective manner.
Conclusion
After exploring the ecological impact of feral camels on Australian flora, fauna, and Aboriginal communities, it is clear that the presence of these animals has had a significant negative impact on the environment.
Despite efforts to control their population through culling and commercial use, the number of feral camels in Australia continues to grow, and their impact is widespread and long-lasting. It is crucial that ongoing research and monitoring efforts are established to better understand and mitigate the effects of feral camels.
It is essential that management strategies continue to improve and evolve, taking into account the cultural and social significance of camels to Aboriginal communities while also prioritizing the protection of native flora and fauna. These efforts must also be coupled with education and awareness campaigns to increase public understanding and engagement in the issue.
In conclusion, the ecological impact of feral camels on Australian flora and fauna is undeniable, and the management of their population must be a significant priority for the protection and restoration of Australia’s unique ecosystems. It is essential that we take action now to prevent further damage and work towards a sustainable future for all biodiversity in Australia.
Frequently Asked Questions
Question 1?
What is the approximate population of feral camels in Australia?
Answer
As of 2019, it is estimated that Australia has over 1.2 million feral camels.
Question 2?
Are feral camels a threat to native Australian wildlife?
Answer
Yes, they are. Feral camels compete for resources with native animals and also prey on small mammals and reptiles.
Question 3?
How did feral camels arrive in Australia?
Answer
Feral camels arrived in Australia with Afghan and Indian traders in the 19th century.
Question 4?
Do Aboriginal communities use feral camels for any purpose?
Answer
Yes, feral camels are a part of the cultural and social significance for some Aboriginal communities as they are used for transportation and as a source of food.
Question 5?
Are there any laws in Australia regulating the culling of feral camels?
Answer
Yes, there are laws governing the humane culling of feral camels in Australia.
Question 6?
Can feral camels be used for commercial purposes in Australia?
Answer
Yes, feral camels can be used for commercial purposes such as meat and milk production.
Question 7?
What is the significance of feral camels in the Australian ecosystem?
Answer
Feral camels are not native to Australia and are considered an invasive species. They have had a negative impact on the Australian ecosystem, including native plants and animals.
Question 8?
Is the Australian government doing anything to address the issue of feral camels?
Answer
Yes, the Australian government has implemented various strategies to manage the feral camel population, including culling and commercial harvesting programs.
Question 9?
Are there any groups advocating for the relocation of feral camels in Australia?
Answer
There have been some groups advocating for the relocation of feral camels in Australia, but this approach is not widely supported due to the costs involved and potential impact on other ecosystems.
Question 10?
What can individuals do to help address the issue of feral camels in Australia?
Answer
Individuals can support government-led initiatives to manage the feral camel population, as well as refrain from feeding or interacting with feral camels if encountered in the wild.
